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What created Uzbek national identity? This is a complex question and one that is personal for each Uzbek. This resource will focus on presenting one element of this identity – the Uzbek national narrative. Who are the national heroes and what are the pivotal events that they learned about in school? What are the major events that led to the formation of their nation as it now exists? What places loom large in the Uzbek nation’s collective experience? How does language and belief shape this narrative?
A national narrative is a pillar of national identity. More than a national history, it’s the people, events, places, and values that we see as having formed who we are and how we see the world around us. This can be witnessed in concrete terms – a national narrative forms a basis for literature, film, and art. We see it in place names and imagined in monuments. It is a foundation for calls to action, used by politicians and activists to rally the population to protect or champion or even reevaluate elements of their collective identity.
The intent of this resource is to tell this narrative in a short and functional way, to quickly introduce it to outsiders and allow them to broadly understand the cultural foundations of Uzbek society at large. Tourists, students, and diplomats alike should find this informative as they prepare to experience and observe the beautiful and enduring Uzbek nation.
Special Themes in Uzbek Identity
Uzbekistan is 84% ethnic Uzbek. Of these ethnic Uzbeks, 97% identify as Sunni Muslim.
The Uzbek language is the only official language of Uzbekistan and Uzbeks consider their language an essential identity marker. Under the Soviets, Russian was also ubiquitous and most Uzbeks were bilingual. Russian remains a common second language, especially in major urban areas, and often serves as a lingua franca between Uzbekistan’s minorities, who may not speak Uzbek but do speak Russian. The government provides some services in Russian including some public schools that teach in Russian. That said, Uzbekistan has been moving away from Russian since independence, in particular transitioning away from Cyrillic to a Latin-based alphabet. Most Uzbeks who study a language other than Uzbek today tend to study western languages rather than Russian.
Sunni Islam is the professed religion of around 97% of ethnic Uzbeks in Uzbekistan. However, the practice of Islam there is moderate, similar to how Catholicism is practiced in many Western countries. Few people attend mosques regularly, and religious clothing is rare. Uzbek artists often do not shy from depicting humans, plants, and animals, which is typically forbidden in Islamic art. This relaxed approach to Islam is fundamentally rooted in Sufi movements from the 1300s and Uzbekistan’s long history of valuing secular education. Historically, women traveled with caravans on the Silk Road, and mixed-gender universities existed in Samarkand and Bukhara 600 years ago.
Zoroastrianism predated Islam in Uzbekistan and its influence is still felt. Navruz, originally a Zoroastrian New Year celebration, remains one of Uzbekistan’s most important national holidays. The celebration symbolizes renewal, the triumph of light over darkness, and harmony with nature—core Zoroastrian themes. Architectural and artistic motifs, such as the use of fire-like patterns and celestial symbols, also hint at Zoroastrian cosmology.
Education and knowledge are particularly revered in Uzbek culture. Most of Uzbekistan’s national heroes are celebrated because of how they advanced science, learning, and culture. Many were part of the Islamic Golden Age, when Muslim states not only preserved the learning of ancient Greece and Rome during the European Dark Ages, but also greatly advanced it with learning that later contributed to Europe’s Renaissance. Without advanced mathematics and engineering, it would have been impossible to build the great irrigation systems that allowed the forefathers of Uzbekistan to stretch their water resources and build great empires in the desert.
Urban culture and medieval architecture set Uzbek culture apart in Central Asia. Whereas many Turkic societies lived nomadic lifestyles, the Uzbeks developed settled agriculture and built large cities. Further, most of these urban centers today are dominated by well-preserved medieval architecture, creating a very strong link with Uzbekistan’s distant past and imbuing daily life with a unique atmosphere. Historically, the term “Uzbek” referred to Central Asian city dwellers.
Hodja Nasreddin is a folk character in many Islamic societies and particularly popular in Uzbekistan. A philosopher, trickster, and humorist, tales that feature him often read like jokes with clever solutions to life’s challenges serving as punchlines. They tell of justice, humility, and humor in the face of adversity. He is usually depicted riding a donkey, often backwards, reflecting his playful and unconventional character.
Pottery in Uzbekistan is renowned for its vibrant colors and intricate patterns that often reflect Zoroastrian or Islamic heritage. Regional styles abound; the city of Rishtan in the Fergana Valley, for instance, is famous for its blue-and-white ceramic glazes. Long a valuable trade item on the silk road, locally produced plates and cups are available today in every gift shop. Ceramics can also be seen in tiles and decorative cornices in traditional architecture.
Makom is a genre of traditional music which combines poetry, story-telling, and melody into a mesmerizing performance with the tanbur (a long-necked string instrument), the doira (a hand-held drum), and vocals.
Geography in Uzbek Culture
Uzbek geography, with its extensive deserts, limited water resources, and prized agricultural land helped form early culture in Uzbekistan in unique ways and continues to shape Uzbek identity.
The Ferghana Valley is Central Asia’s richest agricultural region. Its fertile soil, fed by water from five surrounding mountain ranges, grows large amounts of cotton, fruit, and wheat that once fed the prosperous cities and mighty armies of the Timurid Empire. Its mulberry trees support large-scale silk production. These raw materials, along with clay deposits from the rivers and mineral wealth from the mountains, also contribute to the valley’s reputation as a center for pottery, textiles, embroidery, and metal production. In the modern Uzbek imagination, the valley is not only a breadbasket, but also a cultural hub.
Urban centers such as Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva, and Tashkent have always played a major role in Uzbek history and culture. Samarkand, renowned for its monumental Timurid architecture like Registan Square, is a vibrant symbol of Silk Road legacy and a hub of scientific and artistic achievement. Bukhara is a spiritual center with a well-preserved old town that features masterpieces like the Kalyan Minaret and Ark Fortress. Khiva is known for its stunning, enclosed old city, Itchan Kala, with its turquoise-tiled mosques and madrassas. Tashkent, the largest and most modern city, serves as Uzbekistan’s capital, blending Soviet-era urban planning with contemporary skyscrapers and vibrant markets, while also showcasing many historical sites from its pre-Soviet past.
The Aral Sea was the world’s fourth largest in 1950. It contributed 13% of the USSR’s fish production, provided shipping lanes, and helped to regulate the temperatures of the hot desert that surrounded it. Khruschev, however, decided that Uzbekistan should make the USSR self-sufficient in cotton. So much water was diverted to the crops that, by the 1960s, as much as 75% of the sea had disappeared, devastating the local economy and environment in one of the greatest man-made environmental disasters.
Karakalpakstan is the only autonomous republic in Uzbekistan and is the homeland of the Karakalpaks, a Turkic-speaking minority. Mostly arid desert, the region covers the northwestern third of Uzbekistan, but is home to just 1/18 of the population. Near the shrinking Aral Sea, it has numerous ecological and economic challenges, with its people bearing the brunt of environmental and social impacts. Karakalpakstan is also known for its ancient heritage, including archaeological sites like Toprak-Kala, a former palace city, and the Mizdakhan necropolis, where Adam, the first man and Muslim according to Islamic creation myth, is said to be buried. The region’s poverty and isolation made it the perfect place for the Nukus Museum of Art, which gained fame for hiding avant garde art from Soviet censors.
The Kyzylkum Desert spans much of central Uzbekistan. Historically a crossroads for Silk Road trade routes, key cities like Bukhara and Samarkand lie on its fringes, serving as hubs for cultural exchange and commerce. Today, the desert is best known for its natural resources, including gold, uranium, and natural gas, making it a vital contributor to Uzbekistan’s economy. Each spring and fall rains cause it to blossom with sagebrush, saxaul, and even wild tulips that help support animals like the corsac fox and endangered saiga antelope.
Shakhrisabz is the birthplace of Amir Timur, who rebuilt the city to reflect his wealth and power. Although much now lies in ruins, the Uzbek state is turning the city into a museum complex. Monuments such as the Ak-Saray Palace, with its towering entrance and intricate mosaics, and the Dorut Tilovat and Dorus Saodat complexes, demonstrate the city’s former grandeur as a center of culture, politics, and spirituality.
Uzbek Historical Heroes
The following people have played pivotal roles in Uzbekistan’s history and can be thought of as “founding fathers” of Uzbek culture. You may see monuments to them and places named for them.
Al-Khorezmi developed the algebra we know today in the 9th century. He was one of the first to compile and analyze the mathematical achievements of ancient civilizations such as Greek and Hindu. His highly influential books brought Hindu-Arabic numerals to worldwide usage, including in Europe. Born in the Khorezm region (modern-day Khiva), his legacy is honored with statues and monuments, and numerous schools, universities, and streets across Uzbekistan are named after him.
Muhammad ibn Islmail Al-Bukhari, born in Bukhara, compiled the Al-Jami al-Sahih (The Authentic Collection) in the 9th century, a meticulously researched series of anecdotes about how the Prophet Muhammed led his life. Today, most Sunni Muslims regard it as the second-most significant text in Islam, after only the Quran itself. Al-Bukhari’s book traces the chain of transmitters back to the first-hand account of whoever heard or saw Muhammed speak or act in each instance. He also wrote a book of biographies about these transmitters, calling it Al-Tarikh al-kabir (The Large History).
Abu Ali Ibn Sina, known also as “Avicenna,” was a physician and philosopher in the 10th and 11th centuries. Born near Bukhara, he studied law and medicine, and then served as court physician to the Sultan. His major medical work, The Canon of Medicine, was a five volume encyclopedia that gathered what was then most of the world’s medical knowledge. It served as a foundational textbook in European medical education for almost 500 years. He also advanced the science of ophthalmology and our understanding of tuberculosis and dysentery. Major statues honoring him can be found in Bukhara and Tashkent and Tashkent Medical Academy bears his name.
Amir Timur established the Timurid Empire in the 14th century. He is one of the greatest heroes of Uzbek culture and his former empire is considered a glorious precursor to the modern Uzbek state. Both innovative in his military tactics and brutal in his looting of captured cities, his legacy as taught Uzbek schools centers primarily on his territorial expansion, establishment of trade routes, support for the arts, and legal reforms. He started out with only a small band of friends and eventually expanded his power and influence into one of the most powerful empires in the world. Today, numerous statues honor him, streets are named for him, a museum in Samarkand is dedicated to him, and his mausoleum is considered both a national and religious treasure. Other landmarks such as the massive and magnificent Bibi Khanym Mosque and Ak Saray Palace, built by Timur, are also part of his legacy. Lastly, his name, still associated with greatness, is a common given name for boys in Uzbekistan. In the west, he is often referred to as “Tamurlane,” a shortened version of “Timur the Lame,” a derogatory nickname given him by rivals because of injuries he once sustained in battle that left him with a noticeable limp and limited use of his right arm. He retained himself to use his weapons in his left arm and returned to successful battles. Many Uzbeks consider “Tamurlane” an offensive slur.
Alisher Navoi, the 15th-century poet, thinker, and statesman, is a foundational figure in Uzbek culture and literature. He elevated the Chagatai Turkic language, a precursor to modern Uzbek and the mother tongue of Amir Timur, to a literary medium that rivaled the then-dominant Persian. He wrote a major cycle of poems and essays that are still taught in schools and quoted by adults as sources of sound wisdom on life. As a statesman, he oversaw the construction of dozens of madrassas, rabats, and mosques in hopes of stimulating the empire’s intellectual life. He published manuals on writing poetry in Turkic languages. Today, a grand statue of him stands in front of Tashkent’s Alisher Navoi National Park, not far from Alisher subway station and the Alisher Navoi Opera and Ballet Theatre. His name graces many other streets, schools, and cultural institutions across Uzbekistan.
Ulugbek, the 15th-century astronomer, mathematician, and Timurid ruler, is a symbol of scientific achievement and intellectual curiosity. Appointed governor of Samarkand by his father at age 16, he built the city into a center of learning. Under his watch, the madrassa on Registan Square was built. It is now one of the most internationally recognizable symbols of Uzbekistan. He also founded the Ulugbek Observatory where he made extraordinary advances in astronomy and mathematics. His major work was Zij-i Sultani, a catalogue of about 1000 stars and their precise positions, which was extraordinarily helpful in navigation. His secular pursuits and liberal beliefs (such as the right of women to education) earned him the ire of more radical Muslims, who put him to death soon after he inherited his father’s throne. However, today monuments honor him and streets, schools, and institutions across Uzbekistan bear his name.
Islam Karimov served as the first President of Uzbekistan for 25 years (despite the Uzbek Constitution limiting presidents to two 5-year terms). Once a Soviet economic planner, he maintained stability in the turbulent post-Soviet era by retaining the Soviet planned economy and an authoritarian state. Elections were reduced to formalities against handpicked opponents, dissenters were jailed, the press was state controlled, and Islamist revolutionaries brutally suppressed. Most Uzbeks will not openly discuss Karimov, whose legacy since his death has been held by the state as beyond reproach, despite the new government being otherwise reform-minded. Karimov is buried at the Hazrat Khizr Mosque in Samarkand, interred in a grand, state-funded mausoleum. Many statues have been erected to him since his death and his opulent former presidential palace has been turned into a memorial complex with a museum dedicated to his life, an education centre, a library, and a conference hall.
Historical Events
The Silk Road carried goods, people, and ideas across the Eurasian continent, fundamentally changing both Eastern and Western civilizations from the first century BC until 15th century AD. For much of this time, great caravans crisscrossed what is today modern Uzbekistan and often included thousands of people, including merchants, translators, missionaries, diplomats, guards, and slaves, all supported by hundreds of animals such as camels, donkeys, and horses. To profit from and facilitate this movement, strong states were created to provide safety and infrastructure such as covered water wells that dotted the desert every 20-25 miles, the distance a caravan could travel in a single day. Sometimes, these included caravansaries that provided food and shelter to both men and beasts, allowing them to restock and rest. Markets, madrassas (schools), and mosques sprung up around these caravansaries, funded by the wealth this economy generated. Some grew into major cities such Khiva, Bukhara, and Samarkand. The Silk Road is considered an element of the Uzbek golden age and is heavily marketed to tourists as a romanticized era that lives on in still-present architecture, culture, and monuments.
The Timurid Empire was founded by Amir Timur (Tamerlane) in the 14th century. Modern Uzbekistan sees itself as the heir to this empire, once one of the world’s most powerful in military and economic prowess. Timurid art, literature, science, and architecture such as displayed by the Registan in Samarkand and the Ak-Saray Palace in Shakhrisabz, remain part of the Uzbek landscape, educational curriculum, and daily experience. Uzbekistan presents the Timurid era as a golden age that places Uzbekistan at the forefront of Islamic and Eurasian history.
Russian rule of what is now Uzbekistan was solidified by 1875, after the empire completed its takeover of what had been the khanates of Khiva, Bukhara, and Kokand. The Russians largely erased these borders, suppressed traditional governance structures, and brought modern infrastructure such as the Trans Caspian Railway. This rapid change, with the introduction of foreign rule, pushed nationalist and revolutionary consciousness in Uzbekistan, which played an active role in the 1905 and 1917 revolutions with the Jadidist and Basmachi movements. Although many had hoped and fought for independence, Uzbekistan was eventually incorporated into the USSR and given its modern borders as the Uzbek SSR. Under the Soviets, the Uzbek language was standardized, production of cotton expanded, and secularization promoted. Perhaps most importantly, Russification eventually fostered a complex duality in Uzbek identity, blending pride in traditional heritage and Soviet achievement. Uzbekistan is persistently bilingual, maintains many Soviet governing and social traditions, and largely sees the Soviet era as a part of holistic Uzbek history.
The 1966 Tashkent Earthquake wiped out most of the capital. Casualties were low, but some 300,000 (nearly a third of the city) were left homeless and much of the city’s infrastructure lay in ruins. The Soviet army quickly established massive tent complexes and, within just three and a half years, city residents worked together, using aid sent from other republics, to completely rebuild. Today, these events are remembered as a national tragedy, but also a time of idyllic national unity. Tashkent was also left completely redesigned as a model Soviet city with wide streets and brutalist architecture. It stands out as strikingly modern whereas other Uzbek cities are marked by much older architecture. Today, the Monument of Courage and the People’s Friendship Palace in Tashkent stand in honor of those who suffered from and responded to the crisis.
Independence in 1991 began a process of Uzbek nation-building. Uzbek was named the sole official language and traditional arts, music, and literature were promoted. The legacies of the Timurid Empire and Silk Road heritage became cornerstones of national pride. Monuments and museums were built to emphasize these unifying symbols. Islamic traditions were revived and mosques and madrassas were restored. Although culturally the new government distanced itself from many Soviet policies, it kept power centralized around the president, Islam Karimov, and maintained a centralized economy with forced labor requirements to help bring in the important annual cotton crop. While state nation building efforts were more localized, many aspects of daily life and civil society actually remained unchanged by independence.
The IMU bombings and hostage crisis started in February, 1999 when six bombs went off in the government district of downtown Tashkent, killing 16 and injuring more than 100. The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) was blamed and hundreds of suspects quickly rounded up. Some IMU members escaped to Tajikistan, where they declared jihad on Uzbekistan, eventually crossed into Kyrgyzstan and took hostages, demanding safe passage back to Uzbekistan in exchange for their release. Throughout the fall of 1999, Uzbek, Russian, and Kyrgyz security forces worked to combat the militants. By October, all hostages had been released and the militants crossed back into Tajikistan as winter set in. This national tragedy and regional security threat sparked even greater restrictions on political dissent in Uzbekistan and has been used to promote a collective identity that emphasizes peace, order, and a non-political practice of Islam.
The death of Islam Karimov and rise of Shavkat Mirziyoyev came after a period of declining health for Islam Karimov. Having ruled Uzbekistan for 25 years, he died suddenly of a stroke. Pledging to follow in the footsteps of his predecessor, Shavkat Mirziyoyev won the elections with 88.6% support. Media coverage was tightly controlled and no real competitors ran against him. Karimov has been honored repeatedly with new monuments erected in his honor. However, Mirziyoyev has shown himself to be cautiously reformist, slightly loosening restrictions on freedom of speech and press, and most prominently, finally transitioning towards a market-based economy and attracting considerable foreign investment, which made Uzbekistan almost instantaneously one of the “ten most improved economies of 2016-2017”. The cultural ramifications of this political transition have yet to be determined, but some changes to daily life and the general economy have been felt.
Diversity in Uzbekistan
Of course, not everyone in Uzbekistan is Uzbek. The stories and experiences of a country’s ethnic minorities are also part of the lived experience that defines it as a state.
Tajiks have always been part of Uzbek society. Southeastern Uzbekistan was long a part of the Persian Empire, where Tajiks and Uzbeks lived side by side. Today, Tajiks officially constitute 5% of Uzbekistan’s population, but in actuality may make up as much as 10%. Often forced to declare themselves as Uzbeks on the Soviet census, many have continued to do so to avoid continued discrimination in hiring and education. However, this practice is starting to fade and more Tajiks today are openly declaring their identity. Tajiks have also been migrating to Uzbekistan, one of Central Asia’s strongest economies, from Tajikistan, the region’s poorest. The Tajik population is thus growing both from migration and from increased self-recognition.
Kazakhs account for about 2–3% of the population, concentrated mostly in the north and in Karakalpakstan, where they have led nomadic lifestyles for centuries. The Kazakh population is growing today in part from higher than average birth rates and, as with Tajiks, from increased self-recognition as discrimination slowly fades.
Karakalpaks are a Turkic people mostly concentrated in their eponymous autonomous republic in the country’s northwest. They were included with the Uzbek republic by Soviet mapmakers and remained part of Uzbekistan after independence. They are the third largest national minority, with 2.2% of the population. The presence of the Aral Sea allowed Karakalpaks to develop semi-settled livelihoods centered around fishing, agriculture, and cattle-breeding. Especially hard hit by the Aral Sea disaster, their rising discontent was largely met with repression by both the Soviets and the independent Uzbek state, which has repeatedly moved to decrease the autonomy of the Republic and encourage Uzbekification. Karakalpaks are one of Uzbekistan’s poorest ethnic groups, and many are moving to Kazakhstan or elsewhere in Uzbekistan. Their numbers are growing due to higher than average birth rates and increased self-recognition.
Russians make up 2.1 percent of Uzbekistan’s population. Concentrated in urban centers such as Tashkent and Samarkand, most arrived under the USSR as administrators, managers, engineers, and factory workers. Their number reached 1.6 million by 1989, but some two thirds left within the first 14 years of independence as Uzbek fluency was mandated for many professions. However, since 2022, Uzbekistan has received a new wave of Russian immigrants fleeing the draft in Russia. These are primarily well-educated Russian males who now work in the creative and IT sectors. Entrance has been made fairly attractive to them through fast-track relocation services. In September 2022 alone, 80,000 Russians crossed into Uzbekistan.
Bukharan Jews are an important historic minority in Uzbekistan. They have lived in Uzbekistan since perhaps the 8th century BCE, when the Assyrian king relocated three of the twelve tribes of Israel to the region. By the end of the Soviet era, they numbered nearly 100,000. Despite this, fewer than 5,000 Jews remain today with most having emigrated to the US or Israel. Many had wanted to leave before the end of the Soviet era, as they faced systematic discrimination under the USSR, but could not due to restrictions on leaving the country. Most left as soon as the opportunity arose.
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